Cambridge AS & A Level9608

Ethics and ownership

Computer Science 9608 Chapter Notes

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Ethics and ownership
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In this chapter

  1. 1Understanding Ethics in Computing
  2. 2The ACM/IEEE Code of Ethics
  3. 3Copyright and Intellectual Property
  4. 4Software Licensing Explained
  5. 5Restricting Access to Online Data

1. Understanding Ethics in Computing

Ethics are the moral principles that guide our actions. In computing, this isn't just about personal beliefs of right and wrong, but about a professional code of conduct that governs how we create and use technology. As a computing professional, your work can have a huge impact on society, from managing people's private data to building systems that control critical infrastructure like power grids or hospitals. Therefore, a clear ethical framework is essential to ensure technology is developed and used responsibly, safely, and for the public good. It helps professionals navigate complex situations where the right choice isn't always obvious.

Key term

Ethics: The moral principles and rules of conduct that govern a professional's or organisation's behaviour in the field of computing.

Examiner insight

Examiners look for responses that connect a specific action to its wider impact on individuals or society, demonstrating an understanding of a professional's responsibility.

Worked example 14 marks

A software developer is asked by their manager to secretly add code to a new social media app that tracks users' locations even when the app is closed, without informing the user in the terms of service. Why is this an ethical issue?

  1. 1
    1. Identify the core conflict: The request conflicts with principles of user privacy and informed consent.
  2. 2
    1. Relate to professional responsibility: A computing professional has a responsibility to the public, which includes protecting their data and being transparent.
  3. 3
    1. Consider the potential harm: This hidden tracking could be misused, leading to a breach of privacy, stalking, or other dangers. It erodes trust between the company and its users.
  4. 4
    1. Conclusion: The action is unethical because it is deceptive, violates user privacy, and prioritises company desires over the well-being and rights of the public.

Recap

  • Ethics in computing are professional rules of conduct, not just personal morals.
  • Computing professionals have a responsibility to the public, their clients, and their employers.
  • Ethical considerations are vital due to the significant impact of technology on society.
  • Ethical dilemmas often involve conflicts between different responsibilities, such as profit and public safety.

Quick check

  1. State one reason why a code of conduct is important for a computer system developer.1 mark

2. The ACM/IEEE Code of Ethics

The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) are major professional bodies in computing. They collaborated to create a Software Engineering Code of Ethics. This code isn't a simple checklist but a framework to guide professional judgement. It is built around eight key principles, with the primary focus always on the public interest. Professionals are expected to use these principles to make ethical decisions in their work.

Key term

Code of Conduct: A set of rules, principles, and standards of practice that guide the behaviour of professionals within a specific field.

Examiner insight

Top marks are awarded for applying multiple principles to a scenario and explaining the connections between them.

Common pitfall

Simply naming a principle without explaining how the action in the scenario specifically violates that principle's core idea.

Worked example 13 marks

A software house is training programmers in a new language. Two employees refuse to attend, stating they are proficient enough in older languages. Which principle of the ACM/IEEE code is being violated and why?

  1. 1
    1. Identify the relevant principle: The principle being violated is Principle 8: SELF.
  2. 2
    1. State the principle's core idea: 'Software engineers shall participate in lifelong learning regarding the practice of their profession...'
  3. 3
    1. Apply to the scenario: By refusing to learn a new language, the employees are failing to keep their skills and knowledge current. This can lead to them producing lower-quality, less secure, or less efficient software in the future.
  4. 4
    1. Explain the impact: This behaviour can harm the reputation of the profession (violating Principle 6: PROFESSION) and potentially lead to substandard products (violating Principle 3: PRODUCT).

Worked example 24 marks

A project leader knows their team's component is behind schedule and over budget but doesn't inform their manager, hoping to fix it secretly. Explain which principles are not being met.

  1. 1
    1. Identify the primary violated principle: Principle 5: MANAGEMENT. The project leader is not promoting an ethical approach to management by hiding critical project information.
  2. 2
    1. Identify the secondary violated principle: Principle 4: JUDGMENT. The leader's professional judgment is compromised by not being honest about the project's status.
  3. 3
    1. Explain the impact on the employer: This violates Principle 2: CLIENT AND EMPLOYER, as hiding problems is not in the best interest of the employer, who needs accurate information for planning.
  4. 4
    1. Explain the wider impact: Hiding delays can lead to a rushed, poorly tested final product, which goes against Principle 3: PRODUCT and Principle 1: PUBLIC, as a faulty product could harm the public.

Recap

  • The ACM/IEEE Code of Ethics has eight core principles.
  • The primary obligation for a software engineer is to the public interest.
  • The principles are: PUBLIC, CLIENT AND EMPLOYER, PRODUCT, JUDGMENT, MANAGEMENT, PROFESSION, COLLEAGUES, and SELF.
  • The code provides a framework for making ethical judgments, not a simple list of rules.
  • Lifelong learning (SELF) is considered a core ethical responsibility.

Quick check

  1. Name the first two principles of the ACM/IEEE Code of Ethics.2 marks

4. Software Licensing Explained

A software license is a legal document that dictates how a piece of software can be used and distributed. It's the agreement between the copyright holder and the user. Simply buying software rarely means you own it; you are buying a license to use it according to specific terms. There are several main types:

  • Commercial (Proprietary): Users pay for a license, which is often restrictive. You usually cannot copy, modify, or redistribute the software. The source code is kept secret.
  • Shareware: This is a 'try before you buy' model. The software is distributed for free, but is limited by time, features, or functionality. To unlock the full version, the user must pay for a license.
  • Freeware: This software is available at no cost. However, it is still protected by copyright, and the user cannot modify or re-sell it. The source code is not provided.
  • Open Source: The source code is made available to everyone. Users are free to use, study, modify, and distribute the software. Licenses like the GNU General Public License (GPL) may require that any modified versions are also made open source.

Key term

Software License: A legal instrument that provides legally binding guidelines for the use and distribution of software.

Examiner insight

Examiners expect you to be able to compare and contrast different license types, explaining the implications (cost, support, modification rights) for a user in a given scenario.

Common pitfall

Confusing 'free' as in 'free of cost' (Freeware) with 'free' as in 'freedom to modify' (Open Source).

Worked example 14 marks

A school's computer club wants to create a video editing suite for students to use. They have a very small budget. Compare the suitability of Commercial software vs. Open Source software for this project.

  1. 1
    1. Commercial Software: This would likely be expensive, as they would need a license for each computer. While it might be feature-rich and have good support, the cost is a major barrier for their small budget.
  2. 2
    1. Open Source Software: This would be free to download and install on as many computers as needed, making it ideal for the small budget. The source code is available, so advanced students could even learn from it or attempt to customise it. A potential downside might be a steeper learning curve or less formal support compared to a commercial product.
  3. 3
    1. Conclusion: Open Source software is far more suitable for the computer club due to its lack of cost and the freedom it provides for installation and modification, which aligns well with an educational environment.

Recap

  • A software license grants permission to use software under specific conditions.
  • Commercial software is paid for and has a closed source code.
  • Shareware allows you to try the software before paying for the full version.
  • Freeware is free to use but is still under copyright and cannot be modified.
  • Open source software provides the source code and allows for modification and redistribution.

Quick check

  1. What is the main difference between Freeware and Open Source software?2 marks

5. Restricting Access to Online Data

With so much data and copyrighted content available on the internet, owners need ways to protect it from unauthorised access, copying, and distribution. Several measures are used to restrict access and enforce copyright:

  • Digital Rights Management (DRM): A class of technologies used by publishers and copyright holders to control how their digital content is used. For example, DRM can prevent a user from copying an ebook to another device or limit the number of times a movie can be watched.
  • Authentication and Access Control: This is the most common method, using usernames, passwords, and different permission levels to ensure only authorised users can access data. For example, on a school network, a student might have read-only access to a file, while a teacher can edit it.
  • Encryption: Data is scrambled into an unreadable format using an algorithm. Only someone with the correct 'key' can decrypt and read the original data. This is crucial for protecting sensitive information like online banking transactions.
  • Paywalls: A method used by websites, particularly news outlets, to block access to content unless the user has a paid subscription.

Key term

Digital Rights Management (DRM): A set of access control technologies used to impose restrictions on the use of proprietary hardware and copyrighted works.

Examiner insight

Marks are awarded for suggesting appropriate protection methods for a given scenario and clearly justifying why they are suitable.

Common pitfall

Describing a method without explaining how it actually restricts access or protects the data.

Worked example 14 marks

A company has developed a new, highly valuable algorithm which they plan to license to other businesses. They need to send the documentation to a potential client, but are worried about it being leaked. Suggest and justify two measures they could use to protect the document.

  1. 1
    1. Measure 1: Encryption. The company should encrypt the document file. This means that even if the file is intercepted during transmission or stolen from the client's system, it will be unreadable without the decryption key. They can send the key separately via a different communication channel (e.g., phone call) for added security.
  2. 2
    1. Measure 2: Digital Watermarking. The company could embed a unique, invisible digital watermark into the document specific to that client. If the document is ever leaked online, they can analyse the watermark to identify which client was responsible for the leak. This acts as a deterrent and helps in legal proceedings.
  3. 3
    1. Justification: Encryption provides immediate protection against unauthorised viewing, while watermarking provides a way to trace a leak back to its source, addressing both prevention and accountability.

Recap

  • DRM technologies are used to control the use of digital content after sale.
  • Authentication uses credentials like passwords to verify a user's identity.
  • Encryption scrambles data to make it unreadable without a specific key.
  • Paywalls restrict access to online content until a payment is made.
  • These measures help protect intellectual property and sensitive data online.

Quick check

  1. What is the purpose of a paywall on a news website?1 mark

End-of-chapter exercise

Test yourself on the whole chapter. Work through these before moving on.

  1. Explain the difference between Freeware and Shareware, giving an example of when a user might choose one over the other.4 marks
  2. A software engineer discovers a major security flaw in a banking application their company is about to launch. Their manager tells them to ignore it to meet the deadline. Using the ACM/IEEE Code of Ethics, identify two principles the manager is asking the engineer to violate, and explain how.4 marks
  3. What is copyright and what is one type of item that cannot be copyrighted?2 marks
  4. A musician wants to sell their new album online. Describe two distinct technical measures they could use to prevent illegal copying and distribution.4 marks
  5. The 'SELF' principle in the ACM/IEEE code states that engineers shall participate in lifelong learning. Explain why this is considered an ethical requirement and not just a matter of career development.3 marks
  6. A small startup is developing a new app. Explain the implications of choosing an Open Source license versus a Commercial (Proprietary) license for their product.6 marks
  7. Define 'whistleblowing' in the context of software development. Give a hypothetical example where whistleblowing might be ethically justified.3 marks
  8. An employee uses their work computer to download and install a pirated copy of expensive video editing software for a personal project. Explain two reasons why this is an unethical and problematic action from the employer's perspective.4 marks
  9. What is the primary purpose of the 'PUBLIC' principle in the ACM/IEEE code, and why is it considered the most important?2 marks
  10. Compare and contrast the rights of a user who acquires software under a Freeware license with a user who acquires software under an Open Source license.5 marks

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